Although the terrestrial biosphere has played an important role in the assimilation of the radionuclide 14C from the atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis, the ocean was the largest storage reservoir of this radionuclide (Levin et al. 2010). Therefore, in terms of environmental effects, the marine environment has played an essential role in limiting these effects by means of its great assimilation capacity, although there are also some negative aspects concerning the radionuclide accumulation in the aquatic organisms. Otherwise, there would have been a major risk that the radionuclide 14C be assimilated in enormous quantities in the biosphere (especially by forest ecosystems), and subsequently assimilated in the food chain, too (including in the human body).
Rons Milk-Milk Effect PSD
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An important aspect of this radionuclide is related to marine biota accumulation and the subsequent transfer to human body through food chain cycles. However, considering this type of transfer exclusively, the radiological impact on the global population is negligible, because, in 2000, the average annual effective dose was 3 μSv (for a hypothetical group living in the Northeastern Atlantic coast region with an average consumption of 100 kg of fish and 10 kg of shellfish per year), which is considerably lower than the accepted value for the public of 1 mSv (Livingston and Provinec 2000).
Looking at the overall situation, the 23 atmospheric nuclear tests conducted by the United States in this Pacific region have led to the contamination of soil and marine ecosystems, particularly with radionuclides such as 137Cs (found in marine water, lagoon sediment, and fish), 90Sr (coral soils), and 239,240Pu and 241Am (both being found mainly in coral sediments) (IAEA 1998b). Regarding human exposure, it is expected that, for a hypothetical group living on the Bikini Island and consuming only locally produced food, the annual effective dose will be of approx. 15 mSv (mainly from 137Cs) or 17.4 mSv, if the average annual effective dose due to all natural sources of radiation is included (IAEA 1998b).
Currently, radioactive pollution of the two atolls is mainly due to radionuclides 238,239,240Pu released in large quantities and, to a lesser extent, to radionuclides 3H, 90Sr 137Cs, 241Am and 125Sb (IAEA 1998c; Livingston and Provinec 2000). While the highest concentrations of radioactive 239,240Pu isotopes were found in atoll lagoon sediments, in terms of human exposure, plutonium-related radiation effects are negligible, given the low rate of transfer to people through feasible pathways (IAEA 1998c). Although the atolls were also exposed to sizeable amounts of 137Cs, with peaks in the Kilo-Empereur area of the Fangataufa atoll, an estimated annual effective dose for a hypothetical group living in this area would be of only 0.25 mSv, significantly lower than the annual effective dose of 2.4 mSv, resulting from all natural sources (IAEA 1998c).
While writing Terminator 2, director and writer James Cameron and his co-writer William Wisher Jr. created a villain based on an abandoned idea Cameron had for its predecessor, The Terminator (1984), the T-1000, a machine made of liquid metal who adopted the form of an average human.[1] To ensure their ideas were viable with current visual effects technology, the pair frequently consulted with special effects studio Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), who had assisted on Cameron's previous film, The Abyss (1989) with realizing a water-like alien being, similar to what would become the T-1000. The unprecedented use of digital effects was risky, because if they did not work, then the entire film could fail.[2][3]
A truncated 3-month pre-production cycle began in July 1990, as locations were scouted and effects sequences were designed and storyboarded. Cameron provided storyboards for every scene, while effects designer John Bruno and artist Philip Norwood were responsible for storyboards for effects and action sequences.[7][3] Cameron spent several hours a day over a week choreographing vehicle scenes with toy cars and trucks, filming the results, and printing out the frames for the storyboard artists to transpose.[9] There was also no time to properly test out practical effects before they would appear in filming, and if they did not work they had to be worked around.[10]
By the start of principal photography in early October, the effects teams were set up to begin work. Scenes requiring the most time-consuming post-production visual effects were scheduled to be filmed first, with Muren and his team on location to supervise the recording of their various VistaVision plates that would later have effects added. To compensate for the difficulties of matching visual effects to live-action footage where the camera was in motion, it was organized that the background plates would be filmed in a static position and a moving version would only be made if time allowed. Those scenes storyboarded to feature a camera move were performed using a motion control camera system, allowing a computer to read and replicate its movements later.[11]
In particular, ILM had to increase its artist count to 35 to produce the effects for the T-1000s in just four to five minutes of screen time, at a cost of $5.5 million.[21][4] The CGI was so complex that 15 seconds of footage could take up to ten days to render, and the film contained about 150 visual effects shots across four different teams.[22] A variety of software was used to produce the film, such as Alias, Renderman, Photoshop, and a variety of programs written specifically for the film.[23][9]
The tanker truck was storyboarded to crash through the steel mill gates and jackknife onto its side before sliding into the mill itself. Cameron attempted the jackknife live, but was unable to get it to roll in the necessary spot, so the few moments of usable footage were combined with a miniature effect done by Fantasy II. The team measured and photographed the site, and the entrance to the mill was recreated on a 1/4 scale under the supervision of Jerry Pojawa. The finished miniature was about 60 by 20 metres (197 ft 66 ft) and was up to 10 feet (3.0 m) tall in areas. It was built with a 2 feet (0.61 m) clearance below to allow operators to control things from below.[25] The set had a steel substructure for strength while the buildings and items were made from hundreds of pieces of vacuformed plastic, plus railings made with dowels and windows of acetate. It had to be large and reasonably detailed because some of the shots showed the whole location.[25]
Four truck cabs were made, one for the rollover effect itself and three with stronger lead tops for when it crashes into the mill. The tanks were made from PVC tubes capped on both ends. The first was rigged to tip over with hydraulics, while the second was a thicker tube cut in half lengthwise with a hinge and pneumatic actuator allowing it to split open to spill canisters filled with liquid nitrogen and alcohol.[26]
The T-800 climbing onto the side of the truck was a live-action stunt, while the miniature versions used a 14 inches (36 cm) tall T-800 sculpted by Dan Plant with a steel armature and radio controls for the T-800 pulling itself onto the truck as it rolled over. The radio controls were removed after and it was used as a standard go motion puppet for the following shots animated by Peter Kleinow, particularly the T-800 leaping off the truck and hitting the ground as it rolls towards the camera. The puppet was suspended in midair, and a jump was animated and lined up to appear as if the figure were leaping from the truck to the ground. The puppet landed in blank space, so had to animate the effect of him landing on the ground. Took two months and 25 takes to meet Cameron's approval.[26][27]
The film's opening scene depicting the future war in 2029 was actually the last scene filmed. It was shot amidst the rubble-filled remnants of an abandoned steel mill in Fontana, California, measuring about 0.5 miles square.[12][28] The location was further enhanced with vehicles brought to the location and set on fire, plus bikes and cars from a 1989 fire on the Universal Studios Lot, and the post-production addition of a Fantasy II miniature of a collapsed freeway[29][30] Cameron had conceived a much grander setpiece, but it was gradually scaled down during script rewrites, further so after the final scripted version was storyboarded, and more so after the effects shots were complete. Though he was fond of the setting, he determined that it was ultimately not important to spend too much time on it because none of the primary characters were featured.[31] Plans to use a helicopter for lighting were changed because it was both time-consuming and noisy. Instead, Musco lights were used in combination with Xenon lights mounted on 100 feet (30 m) cranes which appeared to be coming from Skynet's hovering ships.[12]
Many of the visual effects for this were provided by Gene Warren Jr. and his company Fantasy II Film Effects.[12] Led by Michael Joyce, the model shop crew build a 1/6 scale miniature replica of the setting complete with a miniature overpass and cars, cinder blocks, exposed girds, and bricks cast out of Hydrocal, a hard plaster, and Pryocel, a softer plaster designed for easy breaking. Dirt was spread over it to enhance the look, and the miniature was surrounded by a 50 ft cyclorama depicting the night sky.[18] Because the scene would require numerous composites of different footage, and each composite pass would reduce the image quality, high-resolution VistaVision cameras were used with an Eastmancolor film stock to start with as high an image quality as possible.[18]
The rusted and damaged remains of a 1/3 scale (about 2 feet (0.61 m) tall) T-800 from The Terminator were cleaned and repaired for use as a background figure. Warren and puppeteer Peter Kleinow chose to use go motion to give it a more realistic motion when appearing behind the full-scale versions. It was filmed on a 1/3 scale set and controlled with a rod attached to its waste, which was carefully concealed with each movement.[33] The miniature set had two relatively high-resolution rear-project screens positioned side by side on the left and right sides of the puppet. This created two VistaVision plates with a single walking endoskeleton. The full-scale versions were filmed with a similar two-screen approach and composited together with the miniatures, explosions, and other vehicles to create the final image. It took about 3 months to complete the effect.[16] 2ff7e9595c
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